The Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound Progress Report 2: Review of Current Forest Practice Standards in Clayoquot Sound May 10, 1994 [Note 1: Tables are missing in this text-only document. We suggest that you refer to the Adobe Acrobat PDF files which can be downloaded from the same source as this file and view them with Acrobat Reader. Adobe Acrobat Reader v.2 may be obtained for free for both Macintosh & Windows from Adobe - http://www.adobe.com.] [Note 2: Page numbers in the table of contents and noted in the text refer to pages of the printed version of this document.] Hardcopies of this document and other reports of the Scientific Panel can be obtained from: Cortex Consultants Inc. #201 - 1290 Broad St. Victoria, B.C. Canada V8W 2A5 Telephone: (604) 360-1492 Facsimile: (604) 360-1493 Email: cortex@sunshine.net Table of Contents (Page numbers refer to printed document.) Executive Summary 1 1.0 Introduction 3 1.1 Terms of Reference of the Scientific Panel 4 1.2 Context for the Review 4 1.3 Communities Affected 5 1.4 Panel Activities and Progress 6 1.5 Organization of this Report 7 2.0 General Findings and Recommendations 9 2.1 Scope of Review of Current Standards 9 2.2 General Findings 9 2.3 General Recommendations 11 3.0 Changes Needed for Sustainable Ecosystem Management 14 3.1 Long-term, Inclusive Planning 15 3.2 Monitoring and Adaptive Management 15 3.3 Education and Training 16 3.4 Support for Change 17 4.0 Specific Findings and Recommendations on Current Standards 18 4.1 Maintaining Watershed Integrity 18 4.1.1 Soils, Slope Stability, and Erosion 19 4.1.2 Water Flow 25 4.1.3 Water Quality 27 4.1.4 Channel Integrity 30 4.2 Maintaining Biodiversity 33 4.3 Recognizing First Nations' Values and Perspectives 41 4.4 Maintaining Scenic Resources, Recreation, and Tourism 42 4.4.1 Scenic Resources 42 4.4.2 Recreation and Tourism 48 5.0 Key Issues Arising From the Review 53 5.1 Inclusion of First Nations 53 5.2 Forest Planning 56 5.3 Undeveloped Watersheds 58 5.4 Special Management Area Boundaries 60 Appendix I - Guiding Principles 63 Appendix II - Panel Members 65 Appendix III - Standards Documents Reviewed 67 Appendix IV - Glossary 73 Executive Summary This document presents findings of the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound from its review of forest practice standards in effect in Clayoquot Sound as of January 31, 1994. The review assessed the adequacy of over 50 current standards documents to meet the Panel's Guiding Principles set out in its first report. These principles embody the Panel's belief that forest practices must not compromise ecosystem integrity, cultural values, or the options and opportunities of future generations. Early in the review process the Panel found that the current approach to forest management did not meet the Guiding Principles. This finding changed the Panel's task from review and amendment of current standards to the task of creating standards for a different approach to forest planning and management in Clayoquot Sound. The new, holistic view of ecosystem management recommended by the Panel requires that forest practice standards consider ecosystem effects and cultural values, and that they be integrated. Eleven general findings and 14 general recommendations from the review are presented. These signal the need: o to recognize ecosystems as the base from which goods and services flow and to maintain ecosystem integrity in all management practices; o to respect First Nations' values and to include First Nations in planning and managing resource use in Clayoquot Sound; o to prevent loss of biodiversity, degradation of ecosystems, and damage to First Nations' heritage sites and areas; to restore areas damaged by past development; o to preserve the options and opportunities of future generations; o to produce adequate inventories of all resources in order to support sound decision-making and sustainable management practices; and o to practice adaptive management so practices can improve as knowledge and experience are gained. The Panel's general recommendations include the following: o produce only the levels of goods and services that are sustainable within limits that maintain the integrity of ecosystems; o increase the level of riparian protection by increasing streamside buffer widths, including headwater and intermittent streams, and identifying and protecting unstable land areas; o broaden the silvicultural systems used in Clayoquot Sound beyond clearcutting; o implement formal adaptive management in carefully selected areas to assess the effectiveness of new forest practices; o provide education and training programs to upgrade the current workforce and increase the number of qualified workers; o develop procedures for company or worker prequalification and disqualification to ensure high-quality practices. The general findings and recommendations emphasize changes required in both the philosophy of forest planning and management, and the way that forest practice standards are created and applied. The Panel outlines the action required to make the transition from management of forests for products to management for sustainable ecosystems. Specific findings note the extent to which current standards sustain watershed integrity, biodiversity, First Nations' interests, and scenic, recreation and tourism values. For each of these themes, goals and objectives are presented. Current forest practice standards are evaluated against the stated goals and objectives. Where current standards are found to be deficient, the Panel recommends changes to achieve sustainable forest practices. These changes will be reflected in the standards the Panel recommends for Clayoquot Sound in its final report. Four key issues in Clayoquot Sound arising from the review are identified and discussed: inclusion of First Nations', forest planning, undeveloped watersheds, and Special Management Area boundaries. Current standards do not adequately recognize First Nations values and perspectives. The Panel recommends ways of including First Nations values and obtaining First Nations participation in the inventory, planning, and management of resources in Clayoquot Sound. Current planning procedures are inadequate for sustainable ecosystem management. The Panel recommends that planning in Clayoquot Sound be ecosystem-based and multidisciplinary; it should integrate the full spectrum of resource values. The Panel further recommends that planning be conducted at ecologically-relevant time and spatial scales. Care is required in undeveloped watersheds. The Panel recommends delaying activity in undeveloped watersheds until adequate inventories are prepared, exemplary forest practices and silvicultural systems demonstrated elsewhere can be applied, and a prequalification procedure is in place. Inaccuracies in the boundaries of Special Management Areas confirm problems associated with delineating land use boundaries before conducting adequate inventories. The Panel recommends that Scenic Corridor Areas be revised using more detailed information on resources. These changes are major, and the Panel recommends an implementation plan be established and publicized for those steps requiring significant time to implement. 1.0 Introduction This is the second progress report on activities of the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound.[Footnote 1] It states the Panel's findings from the review of forest practice standards applicable to Clayoquot Sound as of January 31, 1994, and makes recommendations based on these findings. In its first report (January 31, 1994), the Panel outlined Guiding Principles for forest management in Clayoquot Sound.[Footnote 2] For this second report, the Panel used these Guiding Principles to evaluate current forest practice standards. Our recommendations seek to define forest practices that are scientifically sound, operationally achievable, measurable, enforceable, and safe. This report includes our findings and recommendations related to forest ecosystem processes, such as watershed integrity and biodiversity, and cultural values, including First Nations, scenic resources, recreation and tourism. A subsequent report will address our findings and recommendations about transportation systems, silvicultural systems, and harvesting methods. The Panel's final report will refine the preliminary recommendations from its second and third reports to produce recommended new standards for sustainable forest practices in Clayoquot Sound. Supporting documents produced by Panel members will provide a more detailed look at specific aspects of ecosystems, values, and resource use considerations in Clayoquot Sound. Topics being developed include: watershed processes; NuuChahNulth history, values, and perspectives; the scientific basis of managing for biodiversity; and an examination of the Panel's Guiding Principles relative to emerging international standards. 1.1 Terms of Reference of the Scientific Panel The Scientific Panel is charged with scientifically reviewing current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound and recommending changes to existing standards to ensure that these practices are sustainable. The Panel's goal, as defined by Premier Harcourt, "is to make forest practices in Clayoquot not only the best in the province, but the best in the world." The terms of reference called for the Panel to provide specific forest practice standards in its second report. If only an upgrade to current standards had been required, this would have been possible. Early in the review process, however, the Panel found that the current approach to forest management did not meet its Guiding Principles. This finding changed the Panel's task from reviewing and revising current standards to creating standards for a different approach to forest planning and management in Clayoquot Sound. The new, holistic view of ecosystem management[Footnote 3] recommended by the Panel requires that forest practice standards consider ecosystem effects and that they be integrated. For this reason, this second report focuses on the findings from the Panel's review of current standards in Clayoquot Sound, and on recommendations to guide the development of new standards. Although the terms of reference do not include issues of economic and community sustainability, these concerns are closely related to sustaining the area's forest ecosystems. It is the Panel's belief that forest practice standards that ensure the sustained health and productivity of forest ecosystems in Clayoquot Sound will provide the foundation for long-term economic and community stability in the area. 1.2 Context for the Review Clayoquot Sound is a diverse environment with a rich history of settlementÑfirst by the NuuChahNulth people and then by non-aboriginals. Some areas of the Sound have experienced significant past disturbance; others remain virtually untouched. This condition provides an opportunity to learn from the past and apply that knowledge to the future. The presence of highly valued, undisturbed forest ecosystems is strong incentive to improve planning and management. Clayoquot Sound is a difficult environment in which to harvest timber because of the severity of the terrain and the many valuable forest resources that must be taken into account. Much of the area is steep, perhumid, and underlain by thin soils. Mature and old-growth forests cover roughly 70% of the land base. Of these forests, approximately 39% fall within General Integrated Management Areas and 35% in Protected Areas as designated in the Clayoquot Sound Land Use Decision (1993).[Footnote 4] Clayoquot Sound also supports major commercial and sports fisheries, world-renowned recreation activities, and sites of historic and cultural significance to the NuuChahNulth. These conditions necessitate forest practice standards that are stringent and comprehensive. The Panel's review focused on the science of sustainable forest practices.[Footnote 5] We include in "science" the lived experience of the NuuChahNulth people. Their direct observations over their long history in Clayoquot Sound have provided useful reference and context for recent field observations. The Panel reviewed many documents that guide forest planning, management, and practices in Clayoquot Sound. This guidance takes various forms (e.g., written standards, standards of practice, guidelines, standard operating procedures, planning procedures, circular letters). For ease of discussion in this report we refer to all such guidance as "current standards." The findings and recommendations contained in this document relate specifically to Clayoquot Sound. Forests outside the study area were not explicitly considered, although research and experience in similar British Columbian and U.S. Pacific Northwestern coastal environments were reviewed. 1.3 Communities Affected Many communities have interests in Clayoquot Sound and its forest land use and management regulations. Employment levels in the forest industry, which strongly influence the communities of Ucluelet and Port Alberni, are directly affected by forest planning decisions in Clayoquot Sound. The interests of other residents in these communities and in TofinoÑincluding fishery and tourist operators, craftspeople, and property ownersÑare also affected, because forest conditions affect their livelihood and quality of life. Interest in Clayoquot Sound extends well beyond the immediate region. Logging in Clayoquot Sound is an integral part of the corporate, export-oriented forest industry that is a mainstay of the provincial economy. Industrial jobs and investors' incomes elsewhere in the province (and beyond) are linked to commercial timber harvesting and fishing activities in Clayoquot Sound. The area has significant natural values, and environmental protection of Clayoquot Sound has drawn attention across the province, the country, and the world. Regulations to improve forest land use will not serve equally well the interests of all communities. While recognizing the range of interests in Clayoquot Sound, the Panel recommends precedence be given to sustaining ecosystems and fulfilling the needs of local communities. The long-term ability to sustain ecosystems and to achieve sustained, productive use of the forest will depend, in part, on other activities in Clayoquot Sound. The area's wild fishery is fully exploited. Tourism, wilderness and marine recreation, fish farming, and residential property development are growing. Consequently, the area's population is growing, and will continue to do so. The quality of these and other of the area's activities depends on maintaining the integrity of the forest environment. Reciprocally, maintaining the integrity of the forest environment will require that these activities be constrained. The need for a clean water supply, the capacity of the environment to assimilate waste, the level of traffic disturbance, and the limited land base all will limit the degree of economic development that can be undertaken without threatening ecosystem health. These conditions mean that both the local communities and the world must recognize limits to the supply of resource goods from Clayoquot Sound. The standards proposed by the Panel will constrain the allowable wood harvest and will also limit other activities. These standards will influence certain job opportunities and returns on investment that may be expected from the region. The transition from a history of managing for a few resources to managing for sustainable ecosystems will affect local communities whose livelihood depends on current levels of resource extraction. Equitably distributing the benefits and costs of resource use and environmental management will be made easier by maximizing the number of economically and socially acceptable jobs, and establishing industries that produce higher value-added products using local resources in sustainable ways. While these goals lie beyond the terms of reference of the Scientific Panel, they are nevertheless important to the success of its proposals. 1.4 Panel Activities and Progress The Panel has met 11 times since its formation on October 28, 1993, on each occasion for two to four days. The Panel made its first field trip to Clayoquot Sound in early November. The seven meetings between October, 1993 and January, 1994 produced an operating protocol and set of Guiding Principles[Footnote 6] for sustainable forest practices, which were presented in the Panel's first report. In subsequent meetings, the Panel reviewed and evaluated current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound to identify the extent to which they meet the Panel's Guiding Principles. The Panel made a second field trip to the study area in early February to view practices carried out under previous and existing standards. Individual Panel members made other trips during this period to better understand the area's natural ecosystems, to determine requirements for sustaining them, and to understand how current standards are applied in the field. In developing the philosophy that would guide its work, the Panel reviewed existing and emerging international standards and agreements. These included, but were not limited to, the World Commission on Environment and Development; documents from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) 1992[Footnote 7]: Framework Convention on Climate Change, Convention on Biodiversity, Agenda 21, and Guiding Principles on Forests; the Forest Stewardship Council Principles and Criteria of Natural Forest Management; and the International Tropical Timber Organization Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests. The Panel's Guiding Principles provide a consistent and meaningful framework for evaluating current standards in Clayoquot Sound. They embody the Panel's belief that forest practices must not compromise ecosystem integrity, cultural values, or the options and opportunities of future generations. 1.5 Organization of this Report Section 1 of this document describes the Scientific Panel's terms of reference and the context for the review of current forest practice standards. Section 2 presents the Panel's general findings from the review. The Panel has made recommendations for change where existing standards have been found deficient. Section 3 explains the changes needed to make the transition from forest products management to sustainable ecosystem management. Section 4 presents findings and recommendations specific to Clayoquot Sound on four subjects: o maintaining watershed integrity; o maintaining biodiversity; o recognizing First Nations' values and perspectives; and o maintaining scenic, recreation, and tourism values. This section introduces some of the ecosystem processes and the interrelationships between water, terrain, soil, flora and fauna in Clayoquot Sound. Goals and objectives to maintain these processes are presented, and current forest practice standards are reviewed against these goals and objectives. Section 5 discusses four key issues in Clayoquot Sound arising from the review: including First Nations, forest planning, undeveloped watersheds, and Special Management Area boundaries. Appendices to the report include: Scientific Panel Guiding Principles, a list of Scientific Panel Members, a list of the forest practice standards reviewed, and a glossary. 2.0 General Findings and Recommendations The rules, procedures, and guidelines for the management of public forest lands are set down in a large number of documents issued by the provincial governmentÑmainly through the British Columbia Ministry of ForestsÑunder legislated authority. We refer to these rules, procedures and guidelines as "current standards." The Panel has closely examined the current standards for Clayoquot Sound as presented in the documents listed in Appendix III. 2.1 Scope of Review of Current Standards The Panel reviewed over 50 documents that currently apply to Clayoquot Sound and classified them according to the type or level of planning to which they apply. (See tables 1 through 4 in Appendix III.) These documents are also identified as draft, emerging, interim, or established, in increasing order of force. The recent dates of most documents and the many draft, interim, and emerging standards reflect rapid changes in forest practices. The Panel also reviewed two documents with specific reference to Clayoquot Sound: Clayoquot Sound Forest Practices Standards (June 1993) and the Clayoquot Sound Land Use Decision (April 1993). The Panel's review of standards focused on documents pertaining to the subregional level, that were in place January 31, 1994. More recent versions of these documents will be addressed (if possible) in the Panel's final report. 2.2 General Findings In its review of current standards in Clayoquot Sound, the Scientific Panel found many documents that reflect evolving approaches towards forest practices. Some of these standards are ecosystem-based and can contribute effectively to sustainable forest practices. Other standards, particularly those emphasizing a single resource, do not meet the Panel's Guiding Principles or do not contribute to sustainable practice. The general findings reported here signal the need for change in both the philosophy of forest planning and management, and the way that forest practice standards are created and applied. These changes will be reflected in the standards the Panel recommends for Clayoquot Sound in its final report. 1 Current standards do not recognize sufficiently the physical and ecological connections among terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. These connections are biologically and culturally important. 2 Current standards represent the protection of environmental and cultural values as constraints on managing the timber resource. Current standards do not effectively integrate ecosystem and cultural values. Nor do they adequately address requirements for ecosystem sustainability, harmonious stewardship of all resources, and the needs of future generations. 3 Current standards do not include First Nations' values and perspectives, and do not require participation by First Nations in planning and management. 4 There is no consistent requirement that long-term plans be developed for large areas before developing plans for smaller areas. 5 While many standards meet their individual objectives, collectively they do not prevent loss of biodiversity, degradation of terrestrial and aquatic environments, and damage to First Nations' heritage sites and areas. Nor do they ensure restoration of ecosystems damaged by past development activity. 6 Existing information and current requirements to collect information on forest, freshwater, marine, scenic, and recreational resources or heritage sites and areas are inadequate to meet ecosystem management objectives. 7 Clearcutting is the implicit silvicultural system in existing standards. Most existing standards do not require justification for clearcutting or a consideration of alternatives. 8 Current standards for Clayoquot Sound are scattered in many documents issued by different agencies in different formats, and with different authority. Some are applied as rules; others suggest possible practices. The result is conflicts in standards (e.g., fate of down wood) and inconsistencies in standards (e.g., rates of harvest, size of landscape planning units). 9 Existing documents reflect the B.C. Ministry of Forests' dual mandate: to maximize the revenues from timber extraction (proprietary), and to protect natural resources for the public good (regulatory). Because these goals are sometimes in conflict, current standards reflect differing objectives. Some standards are intended to protect non-timber resources (e.g., British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines); others set operational standards to provide for the efficient extraction of timber (e.g., Forest Road and Logging Trail Engineering Practices). 10 Many standards are phrased in ways which make them difficult to apply and enforce easily, fairly, and consistently. 11 Field observations suggest that the workforce is not consistently informed of the rationale for specific standards. 2.3 General Recommendations Based on the Panel's findings regarding current standards (Section 2.2), its Guiding Principles (Appendix I), and the belief that forest practices in Clayoquot Sound must be scientifically sound, operationally achievable, measurable, enforceable, and safe, the Panel makes the following general recommendations: 1 Manage the forests and waters of Clayoquot Sound to: - maintain the productive capacity of the interlinked land, freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems; - maintain biodiversity of land and water ecosystems; - include First Nations' spiritual and other values; - maintain heritage, recreation and scenic values; and - sustain levels of commercial resource use consistent with the preceding goals. These goals define a strategy known as "sustainable ecosystem management"[Footnote 8] which is based on our understanding of ecosystem function, and on principles of resource sustainability and intergenerational equity (our obligation to leave undamaged forests and water for future generations). Sustainable ecosystem management requires the participation of multidisciplinary teams representing First Nations, industry, governments, and the public. 2 Determine the levels of goods and services to be produced from Clayoquot Sound (e.g., cubic metres of wood, visitor days) through a comprehensive ecosystem assessment and planning process. Define outputs that are sustainable within limits that maintain the integrity of ecosystems. 3 Collect resource information that supports sustainable ecosystem management. Expand inventories to include the status, abundance, and distribution of resources and values in addition to the critical factors that restrict timber harvesting and other resource-extracting operations. 4 Develop a strategy to protect the full pattern of drainage through the landscape. Modification or disruption of subsurface drainage channels or small, non-fish-bearing streams can increase soil erosion and adversely affect fish or other components of biodiversity. 5 Increase the level of riparian protection by increasing streamside buffer widths, including headwater and intermittent streams, identifying and protecting unstable land areas. Water is critical to riparian areasÑwhich are central to temperate rainforestsÑand protecting riparian zones underlies sustainable ecosystem management in Clayoquot Sound. 6 Broaden the silvicultural systems used in Clayoquot Sound, beyond clearcutting. Select appropriate silvicultural systems to maintain natural landscape patterns and stand structures, and to meet a variety of management objectives other than timber production. 7 Select harvesting methods to meet the requirements of silvicultural systems, minimize environmental impacts, and meet worker safety standards. 8 Practice adaptive management[Footnote 9] so that forest practices improve as knowledge and experience are gained. Undertake formal adaptive management in carefully selected areas to assess the effectiveness of new forest practices. 9 Plan and manage forests to prevent ecosystem degradation. Restore ecosystems where damage occurs. 10 Provide education and training programs to upgrade the knowledge and skills of the current workforce and to increase the number of qualified workers on the ground. Sustainable ecosystem management is complex and requires a workforce informed of the principles involved. 11 Develop procedures for company or worker prequalification and disqualification. Even the best forestry practices can pose considerable risk to the environment if not carried out to their intended standards. 12 Consider worker safety when defining acceptable practices. Involve safety personnel when developing standards and new forest practices (e.g., Wildlife Tree Committee). 13 Use consistent terminology, definitions, and inventory requirements in defining standards and practices at different levels of the planning hierarchy. 14 Establish appropriate phase-in periods for standards requiring major changes to current practices. This will allow stakeholders time to adjust and will help to ensure compliance. Recommendations on four specific issues which flow from these general recommendations are presented in Section 5: o inclusion of First Nations; o forest planning; o undeveloped watersheds; and o Special Management Area boundaries 3.0 Changes Needed for Sustainable Ecosystem Management The Panel's general findings on current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound make clear the need for a new approach to management. Deficiencies in current standards relate primarily to the context in which decisions are made, rather than to the implementation of forest practices. For example, current standards governing road construction lead to well-constructed roads; they do not, however, guide the larger question: "Given the slope position, gradient, parent material, and climate, should the road be constructed here at all?" Historical approaches to forest management have focused largely on products rather than on the biological systems from which these products derive. In Clayoquot Sound, as elsewhere in British Columbia, sustaining timber production has historically taken precedence over maintaining forest ecosystems. The Panel believes that forests should be managed as ecosystems, rather than as potential products, and that forest practices should not put at risk the long-term health of forest ecosystems. "Sustainable ecosystem management" is characterized by resource management practices that are scientifically based, ecologically sound, and socially responsible. In Clayoquot Sound, sustainable ecosystem management also incorporates the traditional ecological knowledge and values of the NuuChahNulth. The goal of sustainable ecosystem management is to maintain the integrity of ecosystems. Achieving this goal requires maintaining ecosystem components and ecological processes that enable the land, water, and air to sustain life, be productive, and adapt to change. The objectives of sustainable ecosystem management include: maintaining soil formation, stability, and productivity; maintaining water quality, flow, and channel integrity; and maintaining biodiversity. Failure to maintain these processes and states may lead to failure to sustain a flow of products from the forest and failure to protect cultural, scenic, recreation, and tourism values. Human needs are one of many considerations in designing management activities. The needs of current generations should not supersede the needs of future ones. The protection of ecosystem components and maintenance of ecosystem processes and productivity must take precedence over all other management objectives. In the long term, managing forests as ecosystems is the best way to secure a supply of timber and other products from the forest, and to sustain British Columbia's multitude of other forest values. 3.1 Long-term, Inclusive Planning The shift from managing forests for products to managing forests as ecosystems is significant and far-reaching. To achieve sustainable ecosystem management objectives, a change in current planning processes is needed. Planning must be long term and inclusive. It must begin at the provincial level and progress to the local level. At each level, sustaining ecosystem productivity and biodiversity must take precedence over specific product outputs. Social, environmental, and economic dimensions of resource management must be incorporated into the planning process. Provisions must exist for determining levels of resource extraction within the limits prescribed by ecosystems. In Clayoquot Sound, planning should consider the territorial boundaries, resource ownership, and stewardship, represented by the NuuChahNulth term "HaHuulhi."[Footnote 10] HaHuulhi is the traditional system of land and resource management centering around ownership and stewardship of specific sites and their resources by hereditary chiefs. All the lands, waterways, shorelines and offshore sites, except for relatively remote areas far inland, fall under this system of ownership, control, and resource use. Government, industry, and local communities must be involved effectively in resource management decision-making. The benefits and costs of resource use and environmental management must be equitably distributed. Because Clayoquot Sound is their homeland, the NuuChahNulth must be directly involved throughout the planning process and in day-to-day management. Only such involvement will ensure that First Nations retain cultural and spiritual benefits, and receive economic benefits from resources of their traditional territories. 3.2 Monitoring and Adaptive Management Sustainable ecosystem management is a new endeavour and requires new approaches. We must learn quickly how well these approaches work. The best way to improve our management approaches and procedures as we gain experience and knowledge is to practice adaptive management. Adaptive management involves three key steps or procedures. First, the management practice itself is treated as a rigorously designed, replicated experiment. Second, the outcomes of the practice are monitored and compared to anticipated or predicted outcomes. Third, a feedback procedure is developed so that practices are changed when outcomes do not match anticipated results. Each step or procedure is necessary to ensure that knowledge is gained and practices improve. Adaptive management has been applied effectively to fisheries management but not yet to forest management. It is costly to do well, but still more costly to implement new practices without careful monitoring or mechanisms to modify the practices. 3.3 Education and Training The transition to sustainable ecosystem management will require many levels and types of education and training. There are currently too few professional and technical personnel available to plan, conduct, and monitor activities associated with forest management in Clayoquot Sound. Education is required to increase the knowledge base of all stakeholders. Training is required to convert that knowledge into usable skills that can be applied to forest practices. Education programs must address the needs of everyone from planners and supervisors to machine operators. These programs must clearly explain ecological processes and silviculture practices, and support the explanations with field studies. They must also explain and demonstrate rules and guidelines along with the opportunities for, constraints on, and consequences of implementing them. Finally, they must make clear the link between sustainable ecosystem management and the processes of resource extraction that occur on the land. To keep the education process current, there must be formal feedback from field personnel, managers, and industry to government, scientists, and educators. The absence of feedback systems in the present educational process must be recognized as a serious flaw, rather than a minor issue. Education must both upgrade the knowledge of the current workforce and increase the number of qualified workers on the ground. Programs are required to develop and modify policy over time, to monitor the effects of forest practices, to conduct research, and to practice adaptive management. These programs will require staffing by appropriate personnel. Disciplines such as archaeology and anthropology, not well integrated in forest management in the past, must be represented in these programs. Forest planners, managers, and workers will need new skills to adapt to an interdisciplinary, team-oriented management approach. Training must include subjects such as group problem-solving, consensus-building, and conflict resolution. A team approach will also require shifts in attitudes about resources and disciplines and how they interrelate. Training should encourage professions to share information, ideas, and decision-making among disciplines. 3.4 Support for Change To successfully implement sustainable ecosystem management will require support for change from labour, industry, public interest groups, and government. As a society we must redefine institutions, worker training, products, markets, and attitudesÑalong with planning and administrative functions. A phase-in period will be required, during which open communication and a commitment to common goals among all stakeholders will be critical. 4.0 Specific Findings and Recommendations on Current Standards This section provides more detail on the findings emerging from the Panel's review of current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound. The discussion follows four main themes: maintaining watershed integrityÑwhich includes soil, surface erosion, slope stability, water flow, water quality, and channel integrity; maintaining biodiversity; recognizing First Nations' values; and maintaining scenic resources, recreation and tourism values.[Footnote 11] Each theme presents: o a rationale that describes the major concepts in the theme and identifies what must be protected, maintained, or adopted to ensure sustainability; o goals and objectives for the theme following from the Panel's Guiding Principles; o findings about the ability of current standards to meet these goals and objectives; and o recommendations for changes necessary to meet these goals and objectives. These findings and recommendations will guide the development of standards for sustainable forest practices in Clayoquot Sound, which will form the basis of our final report. 4.1 Maintaining Watershed Integrity Watersheds are the natural functional units of a landscape, within which the many components of an ecosystem are connected through transfers of energy, water, and matter. Watershed integrity represents the sustained normal regime of those transfers, which depends upon the stability of bedrock, soils, and landforms. Watershed integrity is the necessary physical basis for the security of the forest and stream ecosystem. The landscape of coastal British Columbia is ever-changing. However, natural change is slow, taking place over thousands of years. Major storms and large events such as landslides occur as part of long-term change. Such events may be catastrophic for some living parts of ecosystems, but the biota is adapted to survive or recover from occasional high-impact events. In systems where humans have intervened heavily, the rate and degree of environmental change, and the frequency of high-impact events may significantly reduce soil, slope, and stream channel stability. The biota of systems affected may not adapt rapidly enough and, consequently, will be at substantially greater risk of loss. In the past, many concerns about forestry-related effects on ecosystems centered around impacts on fisheries. These impacts were often the cause of serious land management conflict. From the late 1950s, attention focused on the effects of increased sediment and water temperature on fish and fish habitat. Sediment effects on fish directed attention to questions of soil erosion and slope stability. Over time, research has shown that channel integrity, large woody debris in channels, and the riparian area also affect fish and fish habitat. The Panel assumes that if ecosystem management is carried out successfully, special values associated with fisheries, wildlife, and biodiversity will be conserved. Management procedures that maintain watershed integrity will provide ecological protection for terrestrial and aquatic life, and for fisheries values. The following four subsections consider components of watersheds that must be maintained to attain watershed integrity. 4.1.1 Soils, Slope Stability, and Erosion The landforms, surficial materials, and soils[Footnote 12] of Clayoquot Sound are a legacy of the last glaciation and over 12 000 years of post-glacial weathering and erosion. The valleys that penetrate Vancouver Island mountains are glacial troughs, with steep, rocky mid to upper slopes and gentler lower slopes commonly covered by thick glacial till. Near the mouths of larger valleys and on the Estevan coastal plain, glacial outwash and marine sediments occur. On the floors of the larger valleys, floodplains, fluvial fans, modern deltas, and estuaries have formed in recent millennia. On the steep slopes above, weathering and gravity have modified and redistributed the glacial and bedrock materials through landslides. Rationale Surface materials are an important component of a watershed because they support plants, regulate the flow of water and the supply of sediment to streams, and provide the substrate for roads. Surface materials can be viewed from two distinct but related perspectives: physical (surficial materials) and ecological (soil). From a physical perspective, maintaining soil and slope stability, and preventing surface erosion are key concerns. Loss of soil through erosion can be compensated for only very slowly, by weathering of surficial materials or bedrock and by accumulating organic matter. When soil and surficial materials are eroded in new ways or at accelerated rates compared to natural "background levels," terrestrial ecosystems are degraded, and the sediments produced can cause undesirable changes in associated aquatic ecosystems. From an engineering perspective, processes such as landsliding and how surficial materials respond to manipulation such as road construction, are of particular interest. Ecological and silvicultural interests in soil relate to its ability to support plants. Soil provides the necessary physical, chemical (nutritional), and biological conditions for plant growth. Soil also regulates the entry, storage, and flow of water and solar energy. Differences across the landscape in soil properties, and resulting capabilities, largely determine the pattern and productivity of ecosystems. Changes in soils because of their use can enhance (usually short term) or damage (usually longer term) soil capability. On Vancouver Island's steep slopes, weathering and gravity result in various types of landslides. Rockfalls and rockslides result from the collapse of rock faces and bluffsÑsites often too steep to support closed forest and therefore not usually affected by logging. Debris slides and flows result from a combination of steep slopes, discontinuities between the permeable soil and relatively impermeable surficial materials or bedrock, and heavy rainfall. During prolonged heavy rainfall, at times augmented by snowmelt, water moving down through the soil accumulates above less permeable material. This accumulation leads to higher pore water pressure, reduced soil strength and, on vulnerable sites, the eventual sliding of soil. Earthquakes and wind stresses transmitted to the ground via trees and windfall may also trigger debris slides and flows. Clearcutting on steep slopes increases the frequency of debris slides and flows by disturbing soil during yarding, triggering windfall along cutblock edges, and reducing soil strength when the root web decays following cutting. Inadequately built or maintained roads can create unstable cutslopes and fillslopes, and alter slope hydrology triggering slides some distance downslope (see Section 4.1.2). Accelerated surface erosion by water (including raindrop, sheet, rill, and gully erosion) occurs in Clayoquot Sound forests when the continuity of the protective forest floor is broken, and erodible mineral soil materials are exposed. This exposure occurs mainly along roads and landings, and on areas affected by slides and windfall. Surface erosion can result from poorly planned or poorly applied logging methods. Roads are usually the main source of sediment, particularly in the absence of slides and streambank erosion. Concentrated water flows along ditches are a potential continuing source of sediment, although this erosion can be reduced substantially by designing and constructing roads tailored to the local materials and by applying erosion control measures. The physical, nutritional, and biological character of soil must be maintained to preserve its productive capability. Management of organic matter is central to all three characteristics. Organic matter on the forest floor and in the mineral soil improves the physical properties of the soil (e.g., density, porosity, permeability), affecting its infiltration capacity, water retention, and water flow. This improves the soil's resistance to surface erosion by water, and provides a more favourable physical environment for plant roots. Because forest soils in Clayoquot Sound are relatively strongly weathered for their age, and consequently have low pH and base saturation, most "available" nutrient elements reside in soil organic matter. The mineral soil component is more important in providing a physical medium and support for plants than in storing nutrients. Ecosystem function and productivity are maintained by efficient cycling of a limited stock of nutrients. Organic matter on the forest floor and within the soil is the main source of energy and nutrients for a highly complex community of soil animals and microorganisms. These organisms are critical to the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling, and other specialized functions such as nitrogen-fixation and mycorrhizal symbiosis. Even shallow organic soils over bedrock have surprisingly good capability to support forests. When shallow soils are present, forests can successfully colonize denuded areas in 50 to 150 years, prior to redevelopment of a deep mineral soil. Soil organic matter must be maintained to maintain forest productivity. Maintaining soil capability must allow for change in soil properties over time (e.g., during forest succession). The key questions are how much change is acceptable, and over what time period. This time period varies between vegetation subzones and from site to site. After a major disturbance, forest soil will not be fully redeveloped until a late-successional forest appearsÑapproximately 200 to 300 years in Clayoquot Sound. However, essential soil properties can recover in these organically-dominated soils in about two decades after the forest canopy closes. Goal o To maintain the integrity of the soil component of terrestrial ecosystems. Objectives o To retain the soil and surficial materials in place; that is, to manage the land and ecosystems so that modes and rates of landsliding and erosion are not significantly changed, and remain within the range of natural variability. o To maintain the physical, chemical (nutritional), and biological characteristics of the soil and maintain the soil's capability to sustain a wide range of ecosystem states. Both objectives are inherent to soil conservation. Achieving the first objective is a prerequisite to water conservation, and to achieving the second objective. Findings Although considerable progress has been made recently in understanding and avoiding soil instability, current standards do not adequately meet these two objectives. o "Operable forest" is that portion of the "production forest"[Footnote 13] that, under current market conditions, can be harvested at a profit. The process used to determine the operable forest for commercial timber production has been poorly defined and unevenly applied. This process does not adequately consider the fundamental ecology of the land. o In the steeper terrain of much of Clayoquot Sound, slope instability will delimit many areas where forest cover must be maintained to prevent accelerated erosion. "Protection forests" are forests maintained on steep, unstable slopes to prevent accelerated erosion. Defining protection forests requires a consistent approach to evaluating and mapping slope stability. o Requirements for mapping terrain and assessing slope stability are not specified in sufficient detail to ensure that appropriate information is supplied to the successive planning steps. o There is no requirement for a landslide inventory to establish the "natural" rate against which the frequency and magnitude of landslides and erosion in disturbed areas can be compared. o Logging and other forest management activities require physical access. An extensive road network has contributed to accelerated mass movement of soil and surficial materials. Several factors contribute to slope failures: location of roads on marginally stable slopes, fills and sidecast on excessively steep slopes, deficient road drainage structures, inadequate road and road drainage maintenance, and lack of road deactivation. Available techniques to avoid such problems have not been consistently applied. o Road construction methods and practices on steep hillslopes have not adequately recognized the importance of shallow subsurface drainage in maintaining slope stability. Converting dispersed subsurface flows to concentrated surface flows has led to accelerated surface erosion and landslides. It has also short-circuited the natural routing of water from the soil to stream channels, thereby modifying stream flow regimes. o Emphasis on the protection of fish-bearing (Class A and B) streams (British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines) allows a lower standard of care to be applied to slopes above Class C streams.[Footnote 14] o Current standards do not require the consistent re-vegetation of exposed mineral soils associated with roads. As a result, considerable material is eroded by rainfall and surface runoff. o Re-vegetation of landslide scars, which are vulnerable to ongoing surface erosion, has been inconsistent. o Thin soils on steep, rocky slopes and on areas of hummocky or ridged bedrock are sensitive to disturbance. These soils include both shallow organic soils ("Folisols") that consist of an organic forest floor lying directly on bedrock, and very shallow mineral soils (<25 cm) over bedrock. These thin soils can be damaged by scraping off during yarding, consumption by fire during slashburning (largely historical), and sloughing off due to desiccation, particularly on drier, south to west aspects, and on limestone. Soils underlain by limestone are particularly vulnerable because limestones are weathered by solution, which produces deep fissures and very little residue to form a mineral soil. o The natural water table of poorly-drained forest soils and open or sparsely wooded wetlands has not always been maintained. Although many of these ecosystems do not "produce" much wood, they are ecologically productive for a range of plant and animal species and are an important component of biodiversity. Recommendations About Soils, Slope Stability and Erosion 1 Develop standards that maintain natural conditions of slope instability, erosion, and sediment input to all streams. 2 Identify and map areas of land, soils, and ecosystems capable of sustained production, as well as areas with sensitivities that prevent the sustainable harvesting of ecosystem products. Then, define "production forest" and "protection forest" in terms of terrain, soil, ecosystem, and site characteristics, and the "operable forest" in terms of economics and technology. The area considered production forest will not change with time unless new insight is gained from research. The operable portion of the production forest will shift in time, as economic factors change and technology develops. 3 Define methods and levels for mapping terrain and assessing slope stability. Apply these methods and levels consistently in developing Total Resource Plans, Development Plans, and operational plans. 4 Carry out a landslide inventory in conjunction with initial terrain and slope stability mapping. 5 Improve the location, design, construction, maintenance, and deactivation of roads and road drainage structures (e.g., ditches, stream and cross-drain culverts) to meet the demands of the wet, coastal climate. 6 Improve road design and construction techniques to better maintain natural hillslope hydrology and drainage. 7 Re-establish vegetative cover on cutslopes, fillslopes, and landslide scars consistently and promptly following disturbance (except on bedrock or clean shot-rock). Monitor the effectiveness of re-vegetation efforts and undertake follow-up work as needed. 8 For major watersheds develop comprehensive sediment and erosion control plans and programs that: - identify and rate the severity of both natural and human-induced sources of sediment and erosion; - integrate erosion control plans with road maintenance and construction plans; and - outline contingency action plans for specific erosion events, and prescribe mitigation and rehabilitation measures. 9 Reserve as protection forests, areas where slopes, soils, and surficial materials have a high hazard of sliding when disturbed by logging. 10 Apply partial cutting methods to retain root strength on sites with moderate slope stability hazard, and in localized areas of high hazard where retaining small patches of standing trees poses a high risk of windfall. 11 Conserve the accumulated soil organic material of thin soils. Develop appropriate silviculture and logging plans to protect thin soils on steep, rocky slopes and on areas of hummocky or ridged bedrock. 12 Protect poorly-drained forest sites and wetlands by designing and constructing roads and road drainage, and managing adjacent upland forests in ways that ensure water tables are not altered. 4.1.2 Water Flow Rationale The volume and seasonal pattern of water flows in watersheds affect the timing of many events and ecological processes (e.g., fish migration and algal production in streams). Water mobilizes nutrients for uptake by plants and animals, and transfers mineral and organic particulate material. Water on hillsides may initiate erosion, including landslides and debris flows. Maintaining the normal volume and timing of water flows depends on maintaining the natural drainage system. Forest harvesting changes the balance of evaporation and runoff so that, for some years after logging, runoff is greater than it would have been if the forest had not been removed. Alteration of natural drainage systems may also substantially increase peak runoffs. These changes can benefit fish production during summer periods of low flow but they can also cause major damage in stream channels and aquatic ecosystems. In the steep, small watersheds typical of Clayoquot Sound most precipitation seeps into the permeable forest soils and moves downslope in subsurface drainage channels. Interruption of these pathways by cut-and-fill roadbuilding on slopes brings the water prematurely to the surface, and often redistributes surface drainage. Slope stability problems, gully erosion, increases in debris flows, and increases in sediment delivery to stream channels often follow this change in drainage pattern. The runoff regime, including the incidence and magnitude of high flows, depends on the pattern of cutblocks in the landscape, the degree of surface disturbance throughout the watershed, the density and layout of roads, and the rate of cut. Vegetation and soil filter and transform water inputs into runoff; the manipulation of vegetation and soil influences the operation of the filter. The integrity of the drainage system is affected by road layout, construction, and maintenance practices, and by log-yarding methods. Measures that maintain the natural drainage regime contribute significantly to the maintenance of water quality and to slope and soil stability. Goals o To preserve the fundamental timing of ecological processes associated with water flows. o To minimize soil erosion. Objectives o To maintain water flows within the range of natural variability on both a seasonal and event basis. o To maintain the natural drainage system on hillslopes. Findings Principles related to runoff regimes are incorporated into forestry planning documents and manuals (notably, the Coastal Watershed Assessment Procedure). Drainage is a major subject in the Forest Road and Logging Trail Engineering Practices. In particular, guidelines about deactivating roads deal with establishing conditions to stabilize the drainage system. Aspects of drainage that affect stream channel integrity are incorporated into the British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines. However, these documents do not take full account of the natural drainage pattern. Our findings are listed below. o No formal requirement exists for information about the drainage network to be developed in sufficient detail to ensure that road construction and cutblock layout will minimize disturbance of the drainage network and runoff. o Although provisions for road drainage are well detailed and recognize the problem posed by drainage diversions (Forest Road and Logging Trail Engineering Practices), no provisions assure that drainage design conforms with the natural drainage pattern. o Hydrological analyses that would constrain land use practices to maintain runoff within the range of natural variability are not required. o Recommended road construction practices include procedures that disturb the natural drainage pattern by forcing water to the surface at hillslope cuts. o With the exception of some measures related to road design and construction practices, regulations and guidelines about water management and control are not mandatory, and are practically unenforceable. Recommendations About Water Flow 1 Map permanent and ephemeral stream channels, evident seepage zones, and other significant hydrological features during pre-harvest terrain analysis. Apply this information to plan road and site development with minimal disturbance of the natural drainage network. 2 Establish regulations for the design and maintenance of road drainage that require natural drainage routes be maintained. 3 Design cutblock layout and harvest sequence at the watershed level to minimize disturbance of the natural runoff regime and to maintain flows within the range of natural variability. 4 Apply rate-of-cut criteria within watersheds greater than 200 ha in area. 4.1.3 Water Quality Rationale Protecting water quality within a stream ecosystem requires maintaining safe thermal regimes, controlling suspended sediment concentration, retaining natural levels of nutrients, and avoiding release of toxic materials. Unfavourable temperature, sediment, and nutrient levels each affect parts of an aquatic system. These effects vary with the intensity of disturbance. Increase in water temperature affects macroinvertebrate production and many elements in the biology of fish. The latter include fish growth, fish egg incubation rates and consequent timing of fry emergence, timing of fish movements, interspecific competition, stress, disease, and mortality. Alteration of rates of processes such as egg incubation may affect the timing of critical events (e.g., fry movement to sea) and attainment of important growth stages (e.g., smolt transformation and timing of migration). These changes can increase or decrease the success of a particular population of fish depending on the species or life stage affected. Increases in the concentration of suspended sediment can reduce algal production in streams, displace or eliminate species of macroinvertebrates, and affect fish in a range of ways. At low concentrations suspended sediment may alter fish social behaviour, territorial stability, and feeding effectiveness. As concentration increases, fish may suffer from gill impairment, physiological stress, changes in blood chemistry; at high sediment concentrations, fish may die. The impacts suspended sediment have on fish depend on both the concentration and duration of exposure. Fish are adapted to withstand episodic exposure to suspended sediment, but it is an undesirable and stressful environmental element where it occurs. Falling, yarding, and slashburning after logging make ions and nutrients in the soil more readily available for transport by water. The rate of nutrient loss from a logged area changes over time. After logging, the flux of nutrients through a stream system increases in the short term, but decreases over the long term relative to pre-logging conditions. Short-term increases in nutrient levels have potentially positive effects on the production of stream algae and, hence, stream insects. The short-term benefits may be less than optimal because much of the nutrient influx after logging may be lost through export during autumn and winter freshets. These nutrient-export rates are particularly high if slashburning has occurred. Following these short-term upsurges, stream nutrient levels decrease during second-growth generation and may fall below levels that occurred in the old-growth forest stage. A distribution in the landscape of early-, mid-, and late-successional forest stages must be maintained to balance nutrient release, retention and cycling. A balanced distribution also favourably influences the thermal, sediment, and water flow regimes of the stream system. Toxic chemicals, released through spills or seepage into aquatic ecosystems, may have different effects on the components of the system depending on the nature of the chemical and its concentration. Release of herbicides may eradicate macrophytes. Such plant loss will in turn reduce stream insect production. Other toxic chemicals, such as brake fluid, diesel fuel, gasoline, oil, and pesticides in the aquatic system may produce a range of effects on macroinvertebrates and fish. Exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of toxins over a prolonged period, or higher concentrations over a short period, may alter the behaviour and survival of fish or invertebrates. Exposure to lethal concentrations of toxic chemicals obviously results in the loss of invertebrates and fish. Goals o To manage land use practices so that critical elements of water quality remain within natural ranges and follow natural patterns within the ecosystem. o To ensure that overall ecosystem productivity is maintained over the long term (hundreds of years). o To maintain the productivity of fish populations and other biota. Objectives o To maintain the stream thermal regime within the natural range for the system, including maintaining the timing of seasonal thermal changes, the range of daily fluctuations, and the levels of maximum temperatures. o To minimize both concentration and duration of suspended sediment in aquatic ecosystems. o To minimize the export of nutrients from the ecosystem in the period between logging and forest re-establishment. o To prevent the entry of toxic chemicals into the hydrological system. Findings These water quality objectives are explicitly or implicitly recognized in current standards and guidelines for forest practice. Many of the measures that reduce suspended sediment levels will be the same as those that reduce impacts from other slope- and soil-related problems such as slides and debris flows. The British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines attempts to deal with such management concerns. These guidelines, which have evolved over a 10-year period of constructive interaction between forest and fishery managers from the provincial and federal governments and forest industry, incorporate much useful experience. Our findings about current standards on water quality follow. o Aquatic ecosystems are not fully recognized as independently valued resources sharing the forest land base with timber; their management is subordinated to the management of the forest for timber. o Water quality is not treated as an integral topic, except in relation to community watersheds. o Current guidelines, even when they encode definitive experience, are typically written in language which makes them effectively unenforceable (e.g., "should," "may," "consider"). o The British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines provides some protection for habitat (and hence for fish), but the effectiveness of these guidelines has been lost due to unenforceable language and poor compliance. o Current British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines do not mention thermal regimes in stream systems.[Footnote 15] Guidelines that call for establishment of leave strips provide some control of temperature regimes in streams; however, no standards exist for acceptable levels of temperature divergence from natural values. o The management of Class C streams[Footnote 16] does not adequately consider potential downstream effects on water quality, particularly sediment introduction and woody debris deposition. o Currently recommended forest management practices do not adequately recognize long-term effects on nutrient mobility. o Although some documents cite "cumulative effects" as a cause for concern, the term is not adequately defined and effective protocols do not exist for measuring such effects.[Footnote 17] o No provisions exist to adjust timber harvesting operations to offset the impacts of severe natural events in aquatic ecosystems. Recommendations About Water Quality 1 Designate floodplains, gully complexes, and alluvial fans as riparian management zones to recognize physical and ecological connections. 2 Revise the current British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines to make enforceable those sections related to sediment loading and nutrient flushing. 3 Recognize the value of and develop plans that maintain aquatic ecosystems with and without fisheries resources. 4 Develop appropriate operational definitions for processes where additive and cumulative effects occur.[Footnote 18] 5 Conduct research to improve understanding of the effects of slope clearcutting on groundwater and stream thermal regimes. 6 Impose constraints on the rate-of-cut and consequent area in early- and mid-successional forest at any given time. 7 Prevent the discharge of oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, pesticide, or other toxic material onto the ground or into any part of the aquatic system. Maintain a system for cleaning up toxic materials accidentally spilled. 4.1.4 Channel Integrity Rationale West coast British Columbia streams have high hydrological energy. Their natural flow regimes are sufficiently dynamic to cause rapid changes in channel conditions if the soil and vegetation of hillslopes or riparian areas are disturbed. These changes may be more rapid or severe if land-use practices cause more extreme flows. Channel integrity is an indicator of slope stability within a watershed. The character of the downstream channel is largely determined by the volume of sediment delivered to stream channels from hillslopes. The volume, stability, and distribution of large woody debris, the rate of channel bank erosion, and the frequency of lateral relocation of the channel are measures of channel stability. Further indicators of rates of change of channel stability include scour-rates, sediment-deposition rates, degree of channel aggradation and consequent dewatering during low flows, and the increase in channel width-to-depth ratio. Flushing of gravel from the upper parts of a stream system, and excessive rates of deposition in the lower parts are symptoms of destabilization of channel integrity. Loss of channel stability is indicated in the short term by changes in gravel "quality," and over the long term, by changes in gravel budgets (i.e., the amount of gravel stored in headward gullies, and the rate of gravel movement through the stream and gravel deposition in the lower reaches or estuary). Rapid changes in channel environments may disrupt elements in the system that are critical to fish production. This may reduce production of food organisms, alter rates of fish growth, and disrupt patterns of habitat use and distribution. Such changes may also reduce fish numbers or dramatically increase fish population fluctuation, either of which increase the risk of population collapse. Large woody debris is critical to channel integrity and stream productivity in small coastal streams. Accumulations of woody debris store sediments and particulate organic matter. The latter plays a key role in biotic production in small streams. Large woody debris structures create riffles and a spectrum of different types of pools. These microhabitats are essential for insect and fish production. The debris is essential cover for fish, particularly during winter. Lateral movement of the channel results in transport and deposition of additional sediment. In many coastal streams, this sediment destroys secondary channels (which are particularly important for rearing of young fish), fills in downstream pools, and reduces the quality of chum salmon spawning areas near the stream mouth. Channel aggradation and increase in the width-to-depth ratio result in potentially undesirable conditions for fish production. Dewatering of the channel occurs during periods of low discharge because the water flows below the gravel surface. Increased water temperature occurs with the increased surface area per unit volume of water. The increase in scour and deposition that accompanies channel aggradation may destroy fish eggs or young fish which are hiding in the streambed, and may temporarily reduce the density of resident and drifting stream insects. All of these changes typically are accompanied by increased concentrations of fine sediment, which clog spawning gravels and directly stress fish. Goal o To manage watershed systems to prevent alterations in hydrological regimes, increases in sediment input, and loss of riparian vegetation, which result in loss of channel integrity and dependent biological productivity. Objectives o To maintain full-length stream channel integrity. o To maintain the character of the riparian area and the integrity of the channel in the floodplain of the stream. o To minimize the deposition of fine sediment and sand in the channel system, and maintain the quantity and quality of spawning gravel used by fish. o To maintain the structural diversity of the channel by maintaining the volume, stability, and distribution of large woody debris. o To manage the floodplain and the riparian area to assure a continuing supply of large woody debris to the channel. o To manage the slopes and gully systems to maintain at natural frequency the episodic input of large volumes of broken woody debris. Findings Forestry practices in coastal British Columbia frequently result in hillslope failures, debris slides, and sediment loading that directly disturb the stream channel. Prescriptions for road layout, construction, and maintenance, and for designating riparian zones must be more effective to prevent these problems. Such prescriptions are well developed in the British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines for channel zones in Class A and B streams.[Footnote 19] Slope stability is addressed in Forest Road and Logging Trail Engineering Practices guidelines. However, these documents do not sufficiently recognize how important the headwater stream channels and gullies are in mobilizing and transferring sediments into productive reaches. Our findings about channel integrity follow. o Current standards are not adequate to ensure that Class C channels do not become sources and conduits for extraordinary volumes of mobile sediments to move into stream reaches where fish food production or fish production occurs. o The procedures outlined in the document Gully Management: Field Considerations for Stream Reach C Assessments (1993) are an excellent step toward better management of steep slope gully systems. o Channel integrity is often put at risk because of poor compliance with the British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines where compliance would have provided protection. o Streamside leave strips are usually too restricted in extent to successfully protect channel integrity. Recommendations About Channel Integrity 1 Designate and manage riparian management zones to ensure that an adequate future supply of large woody debris is available along the immediate reach of the stream channel, even if a reach of the channel moves elsewhere on the floodplain. 2 Maintain a leave strip to protect stream channel integrity in all stream reaches with flowing water or with intermittent flows which may transport sediment or debris. Do not remove trees from this leave strip even if it seems likely that they will blow down. 3 Complete and implement procedures for assessing risk of debris and sediment transport from gully systems. 4 Implement measures to avoid creating hydrological conditions in which extremely high water flows destabilize banks and dislodge large woody debris. 5 Implement measures to avoid increasing sediment inputs from upslope areas into any reach of the stream channel or other part of the aquatic system. Deal with all potential sources of sediment including those associated with yarding, building bridges and landings, and building, maintaining, and deactivating roads. 6 Revise the British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines to ensure that sections affecting the maintenance of channel integrity are written in enforceable language. 4.2 Maintaining Biodiversity Rationale Biodiversity means the full variety of living organisms. It includes all animals, plants, and microscopic organisms living in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Biodiversity also includes the genetic variation within and among populations of each of these species. There are thousands of living species in Clayoquot Sound, many of them not yet discovered and described by scientists. Little is known about the ecological requirements of those described beyond the kinds of habitats in which they are found. The challenge of conserving biodiversity is to protect, over the long term, all these species and genetic variants from serious declines or extinctions caused by human activities. Primary reasons for conserving biodiversity are: o Conserving biodiversity is a prerequisite to sustaining ecosystem integrity, which depends on interactions among a broad range of the ecosystem's component species, both known and unknown. o Ecosystems provide essential "ecological services" in addition to specific products such as timber. Examples of such services are purification of air and water, building and conservation of soil, regulation of water flow, and buffering of climatic variation. o Many species which were considered "useless" in the past now have important uses, and many currently without known uses will become useful in the future. o Once a species is extinct, it can never be restored; its disappearance may deprive our descendants of options we cannot foresee. We have a responsibility to future generations to maintain the options allowed by ecosystems with their full complement of native species and genetic variants. o Canada is a signatory of the UNCED Convention on Biodiversity. This commits us to managing our resources in a way that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity. Maintaining biodiversity requires a system of protected areas as well as sustainable ecosystem management outside protected areas. When large areas of forest are fragmented by logging there is a loss of habitat for any species that requires extensive areas of forest interior. Large protected areas are needed for such species. Habitat for other species can be provided by smaller patches of forest in a more managed landscape mosaic. Managing forest ecosystems for biological diversity is not solely an issue of protected areas. Biological diversity depends on appropriate management of forests outside protected areas to ensure that they maintain favourable habitat attributes and do not become ecological barriers to movement. Loss of habitat is the chief cause of species' declines and extinctions in the modern world. The protection of natural habitats is the surest approach to conserving biodiversity. Maintaining the full variety of habitats is a first step to maintaining the full variety of species and genotypes. The size and configuration in which habitats are provided is critical. The need to provide sufficient habitat for viable populations of native species is a fundamental premise of our recommendations. Forest structure, species composition, and ecological function vary substantially over environmental gradients (e.g., rainfall) within a watershed. Variation among watersheds results from differences in the distribution of ecosystem types, ecological history, and chance biogeographic factors. Species distribution and genetic variation follow these changes in environmental factors and in forest structure, composition, and function. Maintaining forests representing the range of environmental variation would protect the range of habitats for the creatures living there. In places such as Clayoquot Sound, where little is known about the majority of species, protecting and managing habitats becomes a surrogate for protecting and managing species. This habitat-oriented approach must be supplemented by species-specific conservation plans where necessary (e.g., for endangered or threatened species). However, much research is needed before we can design effective plans for all but a few species. Through most of its history, a large part of Clayoquot Sound's forested area has been covered by older forests; young forests have normally occupied a comparatively small area. Except for landslides, natural disturbances most often kill trees in small patches; frequently they are of low intensity and leave the forest understory relatively undamaged. Wind is a common natural disturbance agent, whereas fires are infrequent. When occasional larger natural disturbances occurred in the past, they were often discontinuous and resulted in the establishment of younger forests that were structurally diverse. Where no logging has occurred, forests in Clayoquot Sound today are almost entirely old growth. Old-growth forests in Clayoquot Sound characteristically have abundant large logs and snags, uneven canopies with gaps where trees have died, well-developed understory layers, and a broad mix of tree ages. Substantial research in various types of old-growth forests has demonstrated that this structural diversity is important to many aspects of ecosystem function and in the provision of habitat for many species of plants, animals and microorganisms. We believe more species will be maintained in their natural abundances by logging practices that create forests resembling natural stand and landscape patterns than by those which establish forests that are very different. Although almost axiomatic, this belief is currently untested. The data to test this belief must be gathered, but in the absence of data to the contrary, it presents the most logical approach to sustainable ecosystem management. Fish and the fisheries they support play a central role in the culture and economy of Clayoquot Sound. Fish depend on the biodiversity and ecological function of stream systems and riparian areas. The complex food chains supporting fish such as salmon depend on a host of physical and biological factors which are sensitive to forest management practices (see Sections 4.1.2, 4.1.3, and 4.1.4). Stream systems and the surrounding forests are strongly linked. The root systems of streamside trees stabilize streambanks; woody debris creates a diversity of stream habitats; and leaf litter, when decomposed in streams, forms the basis for aquatic food chains. Riparian areas, in addition to being the primary habitat of large numbers of terrestrial and aquatic species, are commonly used as movement corridors or feeding sites for terrestrial species. These connections between water and land define riparian areas. A riparian area may or may not support distinctive vegetation. In either case, it is the site of important interactions. In steep-sided rainforest watersheds, streams are numerous and their key role in ecological integrity goes beyond physical hydrological processes. We believe that maintaining the integrity of the water drainage network and its associated vegetation should be a keystone of any biodiversity conservation strategy in such areas. Goals o To maintain all naturally-occurring species and genetic variants such that they are able to persist over the long term and adapt to changes in their environment within the normal range of variation. o To maintain the functional integrity of ecosystems, recognizing the connections between terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Objectives o To conserve water quality, hydrological processes and soils (see Section 4.1). o To maintain ecosystem function by protecting the integrity of riparian areas from the terminus to the headwaters of watersheds. o To protect habitats of known importance to particular species. o To maintain old-growth and forest-interior habitats. o To use forest management techniques that produce stand structures, species composition, and landscape patterns similar to those generated by the natural disturbances of forests in Clayoquot Sound. Achieving these objectives requires integrated, ecosystem-based planning at three levels: the region, the watershed or groups of watersheds, and the stand. Findings Many of the documents in Tables 1-4 (Appendix III) include standards or procedures that affect the maintenance of biodiversity. Some of these documents address biodiversity directly (e.g., British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines, Guidelines to Maintain Biological Diversity in Coastal Forests, Guidelines for Maintaining Biodiversity During Juvenile Spacing, Interim Wildlife/Forestry Guidelines for Biological Diversity at the Stand Level During Juvenile Spacing Entries, Guidelines to Maintain Biodiversity in TFLs 44 and 46). Other documents address aspects of forest planning that affect biodiversity indirectly. Our findings from a review of these documents follow. o When applied well, the British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines achieves its objective of maintaining salmonid habitat. The guidelines, however, do not (and were not intended to) maintain the full biodiversity of freshwater systems. o The British Columbia Coastal Fisheries/Forestry Guidelines also does not mention thermal regimes in stream systems. Available data suggest that logging in headwater areas beyond the range of fish can affect stream temperatures in both winter and summer, hence survival of salmon and other aquatic organisms. o Stream classification focuses on presence of fish. These classifications are inadequate to meet the needs of all species that require stream and riparian habitats. Stream classification considers gradient but not streambank stability, sediment loads, or transport capability. o Protection of riparian areas is not afforded to all streams, and protection of steep stream gullies and gully-headwall complexes often is insufficient. Where riparian zones are designated, rules governing the protection and management of riparian zones do not provide for adequate streamside protection. o The draft Guidelines to Maintain Biological Diversity in Coastal Forests defines a procedure for designating Forest Ecosystem Networks (FENs) based primarily on areas with existing administrative constraints on harvesting (e.g., parks, Environmentally Sensitive Areas, visually sensitive areas, and inoperable areas). While such areas may have value in a plan for maintaining biodiversity, their inclusion in FENs currently requires no assessment of their potential contribution to biodiversity. This approach places apparent emphasis on minimizing the removal of land from timber harvesting rather than on maintaining biodiversity. o The Guidelines to Maintain Biological Diversity in Coastal Forests assumes that maintaining 12% of the land and 20% of the forest as old growth will adequately maintain biodiversity. These targets are set a priori, without a strong biological rationale. o Current procedures to prepare sites for planting trees do not recognize the importance of down wood as habitat for small mammals, amphibians, invertebrates, and fungi. o Recommendations for numbers of wildlife trees per hectare are inconsistent among documents. Further, these estimates consider mainly nesting requirements for woodpeckers. Recommendations to retain wildlife trees do not recognize clearly that patches of trees are often more useful than trees left individually. o Guidelines to maintain biodiversity often conflict with other guidelines (e.g., utilization standards require removal of all logs with commercial value from the treatment unit). Although silviculture standards (e.g., species planted, stocking levels) are somewhat flexible, they may not be sufficiently flexible to maintain the desired biodiversity. o Most documents are based on the premise that clearcutting is the silvicultural system of choice. They do not provide standards relevant to other silvicultural and harvesting systems (e.g., appropriate approaches to retaining large trees, dying trees, and down wood will vary with silvicultural system). Alternative standards will often be required when other silvicultural systems are employed (e.g., "green-up" criteria established for clearcuts may be relaxed under a selection system). o Definitions of the size of a "landscape unit" (large areas used in planning) vary considerably among documents. o Current guidelines to maintain biodiversity recommend that a variety of patterns and age classes of tree species be arranged on the landscape but do not provide sufficient rationale for doing so. o The spatial consequences of various harvesting patterns have not been adequately considered. o Spatially explicit planning (whether 5-year or 20-year) uses time periods too short to integrate the long-term needs of biodiversity. o Some forest planning documents (e.g., Clayoquot Sound Forest Practices Standards) recommend cutting patterns that will produce a regular checkerboard of cut and uncut areas on the landscape. This pattern fragments the remaining forest. Moreover, the next pass of harvesting may result in large areas of early seral stages, which can be detrimental to many wildlife species. o Planning documents currently require only the use of "readily available information" to plan for biodiversity. In most cases, readily available information is inadequate to develop a management plan that reflects biodiversity requirements; better inventories are required. o Many of the recommendations found in larger scale planning documents are not reflected in the more specific documents dealing with smaller areas. In particular the recommendations for inventory of a wide variety of resources found in the Coast Planning Guidelines are not reiterated in the more widely used Five Year Development Plan Guidelines. o The Coast Planning Guidelines do not specifically consider the roles that riparian and late successional forests play in ecosystem productivity, hydrological processes, landscape connectivity, and biodiversity. o Planning documents do not explicitly recognize the importance of closing some roads or minimizing road density to maintain wildlife species that are sensitive to human activities. o Pre-harvest Silviculture Prescriptions (PHSPs) do not require the stand-level management practices recommended in the Guidelines to Maintain Biological Diversity in Coastal Forests. o No procedures or objectives have been specified for selecting trees or patches of trees to be retained when carrying out alternatives to clearcutting. This makes undertaking such treatments more difficult and less likely to achieve objectives broader than just timber management. o The Pre-harvest Silviculture Prescription Procedures and Guidelines for the Vancouver Forest Region document recommends leaving trees of good form to avoid highgrading, but does not recognize the utility of large trees with poor form (e.g., big branches, deep canopies) to wildlife species. o Some guidelines addressing concerns for scenic resources recommend removing snags or trees with poor form, minimizing stump heights, and removing slash. These suggestions conflict with concerns for biodiversity. Recommendations About Maintaining Biodiversity 1 Develop a regional system of protected areas that protects representative examples of all major ecosystems. 2 Undertake complementary activities to maintain biological diversity in managed watersheds. 3 Require an inventory of ecological resources as a prerequisite to development planning. 4 In managed watersheds, maintain the connection between habitats by ensuring that treatment units are not ecological barriers. This can be accomplished by choosing appropriate silvicultural systems, green-up periods, and silviculture treatments, or by developing Forest Ecosystem Networks (FENs). 5 Build FENs from the following critical components: - riparian management zones adjacent to water bodies, including some upland habitat; - habitats important to threatened and endangered species; - patches of old forest large enough to provide forest-interior habitat for species requiring those conditions;[Footnote 20] and - representation of rare ecosystems which are not included in any of the previous components. Areas of inoperable and unmerchantable forest can be included, but not at the expense of any of the previous components. 6 Develop a stream classification system based on broad criteria of biological diversity and hydrological and geomorphic processes, rather than primarily on fish. 7 Protect riparian areas. Retain most trees (including merchantable trees) and understory vegetation in riparian areas to maximize the value of riparian areas for terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. 8 Recognize the importance of coarse woody debris as habitat in guidelines and standards for stand management (e.g., utilization standards, site preparation guidelines). 9 In all watersheds, minimize the number, total length, and width of cleared right-of-way of roads, and deactivate some roads after use to accommodate species sensitive to human activity. 10 Develop a planning procedure for retaining trees for wildlife individually and in patches at the stand level. In the procedure, recognize that appropriate levels and patterns of retention will vary among sites. Require PHSPs to include a prescription for structural retention in each treatment unit. 11 Base guidelines for stand structure, age-class distributions, and landscape patterns on the historical states of forests in each area. In Clayoquot Sound, focus stand-level prescriptions to maintain biodiversity on maintaining old-growth characteristics in managed stands. These characteristics include large old trees, large down wood, dying and dead trees, and complex vertical and horizontal structure. 12 Require planning documents to consider a range of silvicultural systems for the watershed. Include structural retention in standards for silvicultural systems. Incorporate stand-level management practices in PHSPs (e.g., as recommended in the Guidelines to Maintain Biological Diversity in Coastal Forests). 13 Avoid silvicultural systems that produce a regular checkerboard of cut and uncut areas across the landscape (e.g., clearcutting). 14 Develop guidelines for resolving conflicts between existing guidelines (e.g., between guidelines for biodiversity and utilization standards). Ensure that stocking standards and other silviculture standards are flexible enough to maintain biodiversity. 15 Develop procedures for resolving potential conflicts between guidelines for scenic resources and for biodiversity (e.g., removing what might be considered unsightly snags that are valuable woodpecker habitat). Provide public education on why specific practices are undertaken for biodiversity. 4.3 Recognizing First Nations' Values and Perspectives Rationale Agenda 21 of UNCED '92 recognizes the relevance of traditional values and resource management practices. Specifically, it recognizes: o the need to protect the lands of indigenous people and their communities from activities that are environmentally unsound or that the indigenous people consider to be socially and culturally inappropriate; and o the importance of First Nations' values, traditional knowledge, and resource management practices in promoting environmentally sound and sustainable development. Similarly, UNCED's Guiding Principles on Forests, included as a principle: o National forest policies should recognize and duly support the identity, culture, and rights of indigenous people, their communities and other communities, and other forest dwellers. Appropriate conditions should be promoted for these groups to have an economic stake in forest use, perform economic activities, and achieve and maintain cultural identity and social organization as well as adequate levels of livelihood and well being through inter alia, those land tenure arrangements which serve as incentives for the sustainable management of forests. NuuChahNulth people have always relied on land, foreshore, and offshore resources for sustenance. The NuuChahNulth people form a majority of the population of the Clayoquot Sound area, yet they have benefited least from economic activity in the area. Further, their cultural sites have been threatened or damaged by activities of the dominant non-indigenous culture. Many of these sites are essential for NuuChahNulth cultural and spiritual well-being. For these and other important reasons First Nations must be one of the primary participants in determining the extent of logging activities in Clayoquot Sound. Goals o To recognize and support the long-standing aspirations and needs of the NuuChahNulth people which are based on traditional occupation and use of the land and waters. o To recognize, support, and incorporate NuuChahNulth traditional ecological knowledge and values into land use planning and decision-making. o To recognize and support the intent of the Interim Measures Agreement to engage NuuChahNulth participation in Clayoquot Sound land and resource use, including aquatic and marine systems. Objectives o To recognize and respect the fundamental spiritual heritage of the NuuChahNulth. o To accommodate First Nations' traditional ownership of land and resources in Clayoquot Sound in land use decision-making and activities. o To involve the NuuChahNulth in planning and managing resource use activities in Clayoquot Sound. o To consult and negotiate with NuuChahNulth about economic benefits before developing further economic activity in Clayoquot Sound. o To ensure that forest practices do not negatively impact NuuChahNulth foreshore and offshore resource use. o To ensure that cultural sites defined by the NuuChahNulth are inventoried, mapped, effectively protected, and restored where damaged. Findings Other than providing minimal protection for archaeological sites, current standards do not recognize NuuChahNulth interests and needs. This is a major deficiency in current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound and a key issue to be resolved. Recommendations for including First Nations' values are discussed in Section 5.1. 4.4 Maintaining Scenic Resources, Recreation, and Tourism The way the landscape looks is vitally important to numerous groups including tourists, recreationists, residents, and First Nations. Not only is the purely aesthetic aspect important, but also appearances indicate the general state and vitality of resources and the attitudes of resource managers. 4.4.1 Scenic Resources Rationale The scenic resources of Clayoquot Sound are outstanding. Dramatic exposed topography along the west coast provides panoramic views from Pacific Rim National Park; scenic alpine, river, and lake landscapes are visible from the highway; and many kilometres of coastal waterways include steep fjords, islands, estuaries, and distinctive shoreline features. Large open areas provide significant views up valleys and over ridges, often to alpine peaks in the background. There have been major impacts on the scenery in portions of Clayoquot Sound due to extensive logging. Vast mountainsides have been clearcut to such a degree that it will take many years for scenic values to be re-established. Other areas remain in an unaltered state. Scenic resources are particularly valuable to tourists and recreationists, who represent major and growing industries in British Columbia. In recent studies[Footnote 21] in which tourists and recreationists were asked to identify the resources most important to their activity, all groups but one indicated that scenery is highest in importance. The only exception was the sport-fishing group that ranked presence of fish first and scenery second. Scenic resources are also important to resident groups including First Nations, who speak often about the wounds that previous forestry activities have inflicted on the land. Because people have a strong interrelationship with the landscape and care about it deeply, it is essential that the public be given the opportunity to understand and comment on scenic resource analysis and planning. Analysis of scenery involves more than assessing the degree of logging which is acceptableÑwhich is how it has often been viewed in the past. To manage for scenery, the inherent characteristics of the landscape must be analyzed to consider how all land and water uses affect the scenery as it is experienced by different types of viewers. To fully understand scenic resources, it is necessary to look at broad patterns in the landscape in terms of inherent characteristics, type and degree of use or alteration, and existing and potential public use. People experience scenery over a large area, generally in relation to a "trip." If the landscape is analyzed and planned only at a detailed scale, these broad patterns will not be acknowledged. The detailed level of analysis is also important for more specific forest planning applications. Scenic resources have traditionally been considered at the inventory and analysis stages of forest planning. This approach has been inadequate for protecting scenic resource values. Without plans for scenic resource management, the protection of scenic values cannot be ensured. Because every alteration affects the scenery, visual landscape principles should be used in the layout of all forest plans. That approach will help ensure that scenic resources are protected. Goals o To manage scenic resources to maximize the enjoyment of those present by ensuring that opportunities for tourism and recreation reflect the inherent quality of resources in an area. o To ensure that First Nations and other residents are satisfied that the essential elements of the scenery around them are maintained. Objectives o To provide for a range of visual landscape experiences ranging from completely unaltered or undeveloped settings to areas with various uses. To plan the experiences in relation to existing and potential recreation and tourism routes. o To conduct sustainable forest practices and related educational/interpretive programs, because this will affect how people perceive forest practices and the landscape. o To apply landscape design principles in all areas so that the visual impacts of commercial forestry are minimized through proper location, size, and shape of alterations. o To maintain examples of different types of natural landscapes in a relatively unaltered state so that people can experience their landscape heritage (e.g., fjord, lake, archipelago). o To use procedures for landscape analysis and planning which are as thorough and objective as possible, and which involve recreation, tourist, and resident groups. o To consider all existing and potential uses of the landscape in inventory, analysis, and planning for scenic resources. Findings Requirements, guidelines, and procedures for visual landscape management are changing rapidly. Because numerous documents have been released within the past year and methods continue to evolve, evaluating existing standards is difficult. Many of the recently-developed standards have not yet been used or implemented in the field. When evaluating current standards for visual landscape management, we considered two kinds of source documents: standards specific to visual landscape management, and general forest practice standards. Our findings about scenic resources follow. o The current visual landscape management system is completely oriented to timber production and does little to account for other existing or potential integrated management uses. Forest landscape inventory is specifically related to existing and potential logging. Landscape analysis, which sets visual quality objectives (VQOs), is based on determining the maximum amount of logging that can occur, rather than an evaluation of scenery. o Visual landscape management is sometimes treated as a subset of recreation planning although scenery is important to many people besides recreationists. o Visual landscape management techniques focus almost exclusively on identification and analysis of "landscape units" which are very small (e.g., unaltered steep face of a slope). Analyzing the broader landscape, however, is critical to decision-making. o Currently, the closest that visual landscape planning comes to actual planning is the application of VQOs on a landscape unit basis. The results of this process more closely resemble landscape "prescriptions" than they do a landscape "plan." Recommendations for landscape management need to go beyond the level of site-specific prescriptions and VQOs in their content and geographical range. o Landscape experts recommend VQOs for specific areas. These recommended scenic values are considered along with other forest values and approved VQOs are established by the Ministry of Forests District Manager. There is inconsistency in the degree to which approved VQOs reflect recommended VQOs, and no process exists for balancing the various concerns (e.g., scenery, timber). o Forest planning and management as currently practised do not integrate visual landscape values into decision-making to an acceptable degree. Many forest plans do not adhere to landscape design principles. o Because forest plans, including landscape inventory, are usually presented to the public as technical documents which are difficult for the lay person to understand, meaningful public involvement is minimal. o There are problems with the current system of landscape inventory. For example, visual absorption capability (VAC)[Footnote 22] is intended to incorporate site productivity information which is generally not known to the person doing the landscape inventory. Landscape sensitivity rating (LSR) is intended to account for so many factors (some of which can only be assumed, such as user expectations), that LSR becomes a relatively subjective rating, and therefore inconsistent. Determining areas from which landscape inventory is conducted is also inconsistent. For example, inventories in the past were conducted only from highways and primary water corridors, whereas some visual landscape inventories are now conducted from logging roads and trails. o The current visual landscape management system applies only to "visually sensitive areas," but these are not defined. Are they areas with high and medium sensitivity (as identified in a landscape inventory), entire identified scenic corridors, or any areas that are visible from a public use area? o The recent development of the draft Visual Landscape Management Guidelines for Visually Sensitive Areas Within Provincial Forests is a positive step. Unfortunately, it is not clear where these guidelines apply; they are at times in conflict with other guidelines, and many of the site-specific guidelines for landscape management are difficult to interpret and enforce. For example, biodiversity guidelines recommend leaving slash in place, and visual landscape guidelines recommend removing slash. Virtually no research efforts have integrated the concerns of various disciplines. o Procedures for monitoring the effects of logging using visual landscape management methods are inconsistent. Monitoring is extremely important to the ongoing process of accountability and to the improvement of standards and techniques. o Few examples of the visual effects of alternative silvicultural systems are available. o Current standards for landscape inventory and analysis were originally developed by the U.S. Forest Service and have evolved and been modified through use. Little scientific or perception research has checked or justified the methods, which have not been updated substantively since computer technology became available. o There is no consistent requirement for long-term planning (minimum 20 years) of forests that incorporates visual landscape management principles. o Many forest practices documents are vague in their references to visual landscape management. For example, Clayoquot Sound Forest Practices Standards states that a Total Resource Plan will contain "a forest landscape management plan." However, that term is never defined and is not used in the visual landscape management documents. Development Plan Guidelines for the Vancouver Forest Region states that the Development Plan should include a landscape inventory, but provides no direction about what to do with that inventory. The Coast Planning Guidelines states that integrated resource management planning should incorporate aesthetic resources, net down the land base addressing concerns such as landscape issues, and use landscape management requirements to determine harvest pattern. Specific methods for these processes are not provided. o To address some of the previous shortcomings, the document Procedures for Factoring Recreation Resources into Timber Supply Analysis was prepared in December 1993. This document represents a first step towards incorporating visual landscape considerations into forest planning, but it also has drawbacks. The procedures are a highly quantified approach to determining the amount of area which can be "denuded" within each landscape unit. While the procedures present defined information which can readily be passed on to the person doing the forest planning, some concerns are: - because this information could be generated easily by a timber supply analyst there may be less perceived need to involve a landscape expert in planning, even though there would not be enough information for a timber supply analyst to adequately plan for scenic resources; and - these procedures have been developed within a timber-oriented approach to forest management, which the Panel views as too restrictive. Recommendations About Scenic Resources 1 Inventory, analyze, and manage scenic resources in all areas, not only "visually sensitive areas." Recognize that the level of management may vary depending on the scenic values in respective areas.[Footnote 23] 2 Develop long-term plans (minimum of 20 years) that outline management objectives for scenic resources over large areas. 3 Develop methods for more objective landscape inventories, and complete landscape inventories using these methods. 4 Consider other uses than timber management in the inventory, analysis, and planning of scenic resources. 5 Analyze scenic resources with consideration for existing and potential tourism and recreation opportunities. 6 Include the perceptions of First Nations and other residents in Clayoquot Sound in all analyses of scenic resources. 7 Provide opportunities for meaningful input from public, tourism industry, recreation, and First Nations groups on scenic resources inventory, planning, and management. 8 Use landscape design principles to develop forest plans, integrating ecological and cultural values. 9 For key areas identified during landscape analysis, illustrate the visual effects of planned forestry development[Footnote 24] and make these plans available for public input. 10 Monitor the effects of all forestry activities on scenic resources. Document findings immediately and use them to evaluate and modify existing plans as necessary. 4.4.2 Recreation and Tourism Rationale Recreational activities are rapidly growing in importance in B.C. and particularly in Clayoquot Sound. Numerous studies have documented the significance of recreational pursuits to the public[Footnote 25] and economic statistics show that recreation and tourism are already major contributors to the wealth of the province.[Footnote 26] The fact that recreational values must be addressed in all forest planning and management activities is rarely questioned. Clayoquot Sound has outstanding resources for recreation and tourism. Pacific Rim National Park and the surrounding area provide significant opportunities for many activities including viewing of natural systems such as old-growth forests. Some of the primary activities beyond the road-serviced area include wildlife viewing tours, kayaking, air tours, sport fishing and excursions (e.g., to Hot Springs Cove). Many of these opportunities and others, such as remote lodges and yachting, have the potential to expand. Tourism is one of the largest industries in the province. While some tourism interests are recognized in current forest management standards through the protection of scenic and recreation resources, current standards do not ensure that the specific needs of the tourism industry are identified and addressed. Some of the objectives and requirements for tourism and recreation are the same, and others differ. Recreation and tourism are presently within the jurisdictions of different provincial ministries. Recreation and tourism should be integrated in forest planning, whether within one combined program or through separate, linked programs. This report includes tourism when discussing recreation with the intent that procedures for the two be integrated. To properly understand recreation resources, broad patterns of use and detailed sites must be examined. Recreation or tourism experiences often extend over large areas. To be effective, analysis and planning must consider the entire experience including the voyage to a destination and the destination itself in its surroundings. Recreation resources have traditionally been considered at the inventory and analysis stages of forest planning. This approach has inadequately protected recreation values. If no plans for recreation resource management exist, the protection of recreation values cannot be ensured. Because recreation and tourism are public activities, the public perspective is extremely important at all levels of recreation and tourism planning. The public can assist in inventory, must be able to express views about analysis, and will have valuable comments on recreation plans. Goals o To manage resources to protect features which are important to tourism and recreation. o To provide recreation and tourism opportunities that reflect the inherent quality of the resources in Clayoquot Sound and the recreational desires of residents and visitors to the area. Objectives o To provide for a range of recreation and tourism opportunities from wilderness-based expeditions to high-end excursions that are sensitive to and based on the area's natural resources. o To protect valuable resources for recreation and tourism. o To use procedures for recreation and tourism analysis and planning which are as thorough and objective as possible. o To integrate into recreation planning the use patterns and needs of tourist and resident groups including First Nations. o To involve recreation, tourist, resident, and First Nations groups in planning and managing recreation resources. Findings Long-standing procedures for recreation inventory have functioned relatively well with minor refinements occurring as required. However, recreation planning and clear requirements for incorporating recreation needs into forest plans have been lacking. Guidelines to address these shortcomings are under development.[Footnote 27] The primary document related to forest recreation is the B.C. Ministry of Forests' Recreation Manual. This document presents a method for recreation inventory which also includes some analysis of the significance of recreation resources. Until recently, other documents dealt with specific topics such as cave management or protected areas.[Footnote 28] The following are the primary findings about these recreation documents. o Recreation inventory methods that focus primarily on identifying and analyzing recreation resources at a relatively detailed scale are not sufficient for understanding and portraying overall patterns of recreation use. o Recreation planning does not currently address tourism planning needs nor has planning for tourism been adequately addressed in other forest management programs. (The Scenic Corridor Planning Process occurring in Clayoquot Sound is a notable exception.) Tourism is an important activity in forest areas and is relevant at the inventory, analysis, and planning stages. o Recreation analysis indicates the significance of recreation resources and assigns each recreation resource to a management class. But no formal planning process deals with recreation resources except in designated wilderness areas. o Recreation experts conduct the recreation inventory and analysis, usually with input from user groups. The inventory and analysis mapping is presented in a highly technical way. The opportunity for meaningful public or tourism operator involvement is limited once documents have been drafted. The completion of the analysis by experts and the lack of public review can pose problems in consistency because the analysis of recreation significance is fairly subjective. o Forest planning and management as currently practised do not incorporate recreation values into decision-making to an acceptable degree. This deficiency derives from the lack of recreation plans or the measures required to protect recreation resources. Recreation experts appear to be involved in forest planning on an ad hoc basis. o No consistent procedure exists for monitoring the effects of forestry activities on recreation resources. Monitoring is extremely important to ongoing accountability and improvement of standards and techniques. o Many forest practice documents are vague in their references to incorporating recreation concerns or make recommendations that would be difficult to fulfill with available information. For example, the Clayoquot Sound Forest Practices Standards states that "a Total Resource Plan will contain location of protected areas and deferred areas and linkages needed to maintain . . . recreational values." Because recreation plans do not exist, the information needed to meet that requirement is only available through direct contact with a recreation officer, which may or may not occur. Development Plan Guidelines Vancouver Forest Region states that the Development Plan should include a recreation inventory, but provides no direction about what to do with that inventory. o The proposed Forest Practices Code recommends the use of Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) objectives, but at the present time ROS categories are established as objectives only for designated wilderness areas. o At the analysis level, the document An Interim Guide for Completing a Recreation Analysis Report in the Vancouver Forest Region addresses many of the concerns and existing drawbacks noted previously. The recommended procedure needs to be tested, refined, and monitored. o To address some of the shortcomings noted previously, the document Procedures for Factoring Recreation Resources into Timber Supply Analysis was prepared in December 1993. This document represents a first step towards incorporating recreation considerations into forest planning. It provides for recreation values to be incorporated within the Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) system.[Footnote 29] Some observations are: - The appropriateness of the ESA system for this purpose must be evaluated over time. A concern is that ESAs are used to protect specific values (e.g., wildlife) but they do not guarantee that the areas identified will be used for recreation. - The recreation inventory, and especially the recreation capability information may not be well adapted to the ESA system because they were not developed for this use. - Because this information could be generated easily by a timber supply analyst there may be less perceived need to involve a landscape expert in planning, even though there would not be enough information for a timber supply analyst to adequately plan for recreation resources. - These procedures have been developed within a timber-oriented approach to forest management, which the Panel views as too restrictive. Recommendations About Recreation and Tourism 1 Develop long-term plans (minimum 20 years) covering large areas that outline management objectives and specific plans for protecting recreation and tourism resources. 2 Provide opportunities for meaningful involvement by public, tourism industry, recreation, and First Nations groups on recreation resource inventory, planning, and management. 3 Integrate the requirement to maintain recreation and tourism resources into forest plans at all levels. 4 Monitor the effects of all forest activities on recreation and tourism values. Document findings immediately and use that information to evaluate and modify existing plans. 5.0 Key Issues Arising From the Review The Panel recognizes that not all issues arising from its review of current forest practice standards in Clayoquot Sound are equally important. This section discusses some key issues and presents findings and recommendations concerning them. 5.1 Inclusion of First Nations in Clayoquot Sound In its review of current standards, the Panel found that First Nations' values and perspectives were not included at a level consistent with internationally recognized goals, such as those of Agenda 21 and Guiding Principles on Forests.[Footnote 30] 5.1.1 Existing Situation Few of the standards and guidelines applicable to Clayoquot Sound contain references to, or recognize, First Nations' interests in forest practices in the area. Some steps are being taken to address this deficiency. An Interim Measures Agreement about joint management of parts of Clayoquot Sound was negotiated between the NuuChahNulth Tribal Council and the Government of British Columbia, and ratified by both parties on March 19, 1994. This agreement creates a Central Region Board whose objectives will include assessing forest practices in Clayoquot Sound relative to world class standards and including perspectives of First Nations. The Scientific Panel specifically included First Nations' perspectives in its first report of January 31, 1994 by stating that: "The cultural, spiritual, social, and economic well-being of indigenous peoples is a necessary part of forest management in Clayoquot Sound." More specifically, the report stated: "Indigenous peoples live within the landscape from which they and the rest of society extract resources. Because of their longer, often closer connections to nature, the cultural and spiritual relationships of First Nations peoples with their environment are different from those of other cultures. Such cultural and spiritual needs must be accommodated in standards governing land use and resource management." 5.1.2 Findings About Inclusion of First Nations As noted in Section 4.3, First Nations' values, perspectives, and interests are not reflected in current forest practice standards for Clayoquot Sound. Deficiencies are listed below. o NuuChahNulth people and NuuChahNulth interests are currently not included in planning and decision-making processes at any stage of forest planning in Clayoquot Sound. The Interim Measures Agreement will begin to remedy this omission by creating the Central Region Board in 1994. o Traditional ecological knowledge and lived experience of the NuuChahNulth are neither recognized nor incorporated into forestry planning and forest practices. (These include understanding of loss of ecosystems and biodiversity.) Information, such as that contained in the writings and oral presentations to the Panel by NuuChahNulth elders (e.g., Herring in Clayoquot Sound, Forestry and Fishing in Clayoquot Sound), demonstrate the importance of recognizing traditional ecological knowledge of the NuuChahNulth in forest planning and forest practices. o Traditional NuuChahNulth concepts and philosophies about land tenure and resource management are neither recognized nor respected. The NuuChahNulth people have long had a complex and sophisticated system of land and resource management, centering around ownership and stewardship of specific sites and their resources by hereditary chiefs. All the lands, waterways, shorelines, and offshore sites, except for relatively remote areas far inland, fall under this system of ownership, control, and resource use, called HaHuulhi ("private ownership"). o The identification, description, protection, and restoration of culturally important sites and resources in the Clayoquot area are not adequate. Documents reviewed by the Panel indicate that archaeological sites, including middens, burial sites, habitation sites, culturally modified trees and wood, and rock art, are the only type of cultural heritage sites currently recognized for protection. Some culturally important sites that fulfill spiritual, cultural, ceremonial, and educational needs, as well as needs for sustenance and economic benefit, are currently excluded. o There is no requirement to employ or include First Nations and other residents in managing, research, and monitoring programs. This deficiency denies non-indigenous managers access to NuuChahNulth traditional knowledge and lived experience. 5.1.3 Recommendations About Inclusion of First Nations The Panel makes the following recommendations to incorporate First Nations' interests and perspectives into standards and practices for Clayoquot Sound. 1 Include First Nations representatives at the onset of planning processes for Clayoquot Sound. 2 Respect traditional values, spirituality, and HaHuulhi, and provide for the traditional resource use and subsistence needs of the NuuChahNulth in forest planning and management. 3 Incorporate First Nations' forest management practices, which are founded in traditional values and ecological knowledge, and which arise as a result of treaty negotiations, in forest inventory, planning, and management. 4 Conduct comprehensive consultation with the NuuChahNulth about land use practices as specified in the Interim Measures Agreement. 5 Define cultural sites more comprehensively according to First Nations' understanding (e.g., including a variety of sacred sites, berry-picking sites, medicine-gathering sites). Use NuuChahNulth guidance to undertake research, inventory, and identification of culturally relevant places and resources. 6 Recognize the importance and potential of concepts of tribal parks and sacred site reserves in land use planning. 7 Restore traditional sites that have been altered or degraded by logging practices (e.g., the former Carter Lake in Herbert Arm) in consultation with the NuuChahNulth. 8 Provide for training, education, and meaningful employment of NuuChahNulth people in both research and forestry activities to ensure that they benefit from commercial use of resources in Clayoquot Sound. 9 Give precedence to traditional NuuChahNulth needs for sustenance (the definition of which should be agreed upon by governments and First Nations) over sport fishery, commercial, or other interests outside Clayoquot Sound. Provide for the well-being of wild fisheries before the needs of fish farming. 10 Develop standards that recognize, respect, implement, and enforce the maintenance of cultural and biological diversity recognized in UNCED's Agenda 21 and Guiding Principles on Forests, in forest management practices. 11 Recognize and take steps to minimize the impact of forest practices on marine ecosystems. 5.2 Forest Planning Implementing effective ecosystem management will require fundamental changes in forest management planning and administration. These changes will affect planning approaches and procedures, planning time frames, and the boundaries of planning units. A fundamental change will be required in the way governments, First Nations, and the public participate in planning, interact with each other, and share responsibility for decisions. 5.2.1 Existing Approaches and Procedures for Planning The traditional approach to planning forest harvesting has been constrained maximization, in which other values constrain use of the timber resource. Existing standards, such as the Development Plan Guidelines for the Vancouver Forest Region, require a plan to harvest all operable timber in the planning area subject to the principles of integrated resource management. Integrated resource management is difficult because inventory about environmental and cultural values (for instance) are lacking. The planning procedure usually involves a referral process in which the Ministry of Forests and the forest company involved are lead agencies that collect the information and do most of the basic planning to harvest the timber resource. Prior to Ministry of Forests approval to begin logging or road construction, logging plans are referred to other agencies and interested parties who respond after most of the planning is done. This referral process is an integral part of the constrained maximization approach in which timber interests have historically taken precedence over other forest values. First Nations have been largely absent from the process. Historically, long-term planning has focused on determining timber supply available within a large administrative unit. These long-term plans have been based on the volume of timber and have not, in general, considered specific, smaller units of land. Operational planning has usually been over five-year planning periods where specific, smaller units of land or cutblocks are identified in Five Year Development Plans. Thus, most operational planning for a specific area of land has been short-term and based on administrative or practical rather than ecological units. Five Year Development Plans have focused foremost on logging, silviculture, and protection activities at the stand level while attempting to minimize impacts on other resource values. In Clayoquot Sound there have been several local planning initiatives to replace this referral process, involving various parties interested in a more inclusive, participatory approach to planning. Initiatives such as the Tofino Creek Watershed Plan have covered longer planning horizons than is common, and have used ecological rather than administrative units. Several specific projects to collect inventory on resources and values other than timber have also been initiated. Since the Clayoquot Sound Land Use Decision, three provincial ministries have shared decision-making responsibility. This is the beginning of a better approach to planning. Some of the needed change may come through implementation of the Interim Measures Agreement. 5.2.2 Findings About Forest Planning o Current planning procedures are inadequate for sustainable ecosystem management (see Section 2.2). o The existing referral process (sending harvesting plans to other agencies such as the Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks for approval) provides inadequate levels and stages of involvement for professionals representing other disciplines. 5.2.3 Recommended Approach to Forest Planning 1 Adopt an ecosystem approach to forest planning that integrates the full spectrum of resource values, including timber. Undertake the following activities as part of the ecosystem planning process: - identify ecosystem components that must be maintained to sustain the productive capacity of the whole ecosystem; - plan how to produce and harvest timber while protecting ecosystem integrity; - plan all phases of forest management including inventory, access, logging, post-logging regeneration, stand treatments, road maintenance and deactivation, and watershed and wildlife habitat restoration; and - collect baseline biophysical and cultural information about the full range of forest conditions and resources before beginning development activities. 2 Conduct planning at ecologically relevant time and spatial scalesÑin the order of 100 years and over single watersheds, groups of watersheds, or other logical biophysical units. Develop a long-range resource or ecosystem plan before undertaking detailed plans at smaller scales for shorter planning periods. 3 Make the necessary changes to current planning processes to support ecosystem management, including providing for shared decision-making, shared authority, and an open public planning process. Respectfully incorporate NuuChahNulth wisdom and perspectives, and involve NuuChahNulth as partners in planning. 4 Use interdisciplinary teams and involve more specialists (e.g., hydrologists, biologists, geomorphologists, anthropologists) in planning and implementing ecosystem management activities than is done currently. 5.3 Undeve